Cause and Effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cause and Effect - Essay Example Consequently, we should similarly examine body piercing or any kind of decoration, ornamentation or reshaping of the human body for that matter. The reasons for body piercing can be varied but it shows many facets of the truth about a person, whether that person wants to satisfy a desire, wants to express thoughts or feelings or wants to symbolize a meaning about him or herself. Desires are rational appetites which always aim to satisfy itself. Beauty is one of the most primordial desires of man, and some people wear body piercing plainly for aesthetic purposes. Women who pierce their ears often wear earrings with precious stones or metals because popular culture dictates that beauty is equated as something valuable and therefore precious. While others perceive piercing other body parts besides the ears as unique and therefore beautiful there are others who find pain and suffering as beautiful and they are referred to as sadomasochists. Though some may see this as a disorder, its psychological manifestations are viable and one such manifestation is having a lot of body piercing on the sensitive areas of the body such as the tongue and the eyes. The last desire that would make people consider body piercing is their desire to know. Many teens get pierced during their college years just because they are curious. College students get pierced mainly because they want to have new experiences while they are away from their homes and therefore dont have to worry about their parent’s reaction. Man is beautiful inside and man tries to creatively express this beauty through art hence art, properly defined, is the creation of beautiful things. The belief that body piercing can be used to exhaust creative individual expression can be traced with the emergence of body art. Piercing as a body art considers the many elements in body piercing such as the site of piercing and the kind of jewelry to be attached. Expression of the body is not

Introduction to Special Education Essay Example for Free

Introduction to Special Education Essay * students with exceptionalities exhibit differences in learning and behaviour that significantly affect their educational potential they have exceptional needs that cannot be met by typical approaches to schooling * special education is constructed and delivered to suit the specific strengths and needs of students with exceptionalities The Modern History Of Special Education. * special types of educational services provided as far back as the 18th century * modern era of special education began in the 1960s during the civil rights movement (rejected existing practices of separately educating students who were different) * early forms of special education designed to reduce perceived threats to normal students History Of Special Education (Legislation Affecting Special Education) * some Canadian provinces enacted special education legislation as early as 1969 * 1975 ground breaking legislation in U. S.  Education for All Handicapped Children Act. * least restrictive environment * individualized education program (IEP) * categories of exceptionality * 1978 Javits Gifted Talented Students Act brought number of identifiable categories to eleven * 1990 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) added traumatic brain injury and autism to create the thirteen categories used today * IDEA â€Å"children with disabilities† instead of â€Å"disabled children† The No Child Left Behind Act: signed into law in 2002 * addresses four critical concerns. * accountability of educators for student academic achievement * flexibility of specialized funding implementation to maximize student achievement * option for parents to change child’s school if achievement is not at expected level * use of scientifically proven methods to have all children reading by end of grade three Is NCLB Making a Difference? Criticisms: * students with exceptionalities not exempt from district-wide or state-wide yearly achievement tests (law recently changed – flexibility option) * lack of available funding. * more emphasis placed on math and reading at the expense of other curricular topics To date, NCLB legislation has not significantly affected special education practices in Canada. How Is Special Education In Canada And The United States Similar? * basic practices follow the same conceptual models * major difference is way it is governed * U. S. operates under federally-mandated laws * each Canadian province and territory has own education legislation * most relevant federal law in Canada is Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Prevalence Of Students With Exceptionalities * vast majority of classrooms now include students with exceptionalities * statistics difficult to acquire in Canada * U. S. Department of Education (2002) * 8. 8% of all students have exceptionalities * 85% of these have mild disabilities * twice as many males as females Inclusionary Practices * until the mid 1980s, special education services delivered wholly or partially separated from regular classrooms * all Canadian provinces have currently adopted philosophy of inclusion. * students with exceptionalities are provided with appropriate educational programming in  appropriate environments * regular classroom is first placement option * Inclusionary Practices * inclusion better than integration or mainstreaming because it does not try to â€Å"fix the child† to suit the system * inclusion does not replace the term special education because it does not provide specific definitions for implementation * educators support inclusion but are concerned about its lack of procedures for implementation Non-Categorical Model. * data-based approach to instructional planning * does not rely on specific labels * proponents feel that labels frequently stigmatize, isolate, and stereotype individuals with exceptionalities * more concerned with functional educational services than outcomes of assessments Categorical Model * students’ needs and abilities are defined and then identified, classified, and categorized * most widely used and accepted approach. * allows educators to design effective educational interventions without over-generalizing the characteristics of specific categories to any one child * textbook emphasizes categorical model * teachers need to know the criteria used to identify students with exceptionalities and how the criteria varies across categories * allows teachers to readily notice problems that children may be having * eliminates confusion and frustration when teaching students with exceptionalities.

Roger and Me :: essays papers

Roger and Me The film was one that utilized and demonstrated many techniques found in the genre of documentary. Michael Moore took every aspect of making a film and flawlessly executed it. The resulting product was one that was to the point and interesting. The first thing that I realized was Moore’s ability to use B role and integrate it seamlessly into the film. One example would be when he was moving home from San Diego. The story cut to a scene in a movie that was of a man coming home from the army. I remember thinking that even though this film had nothing to do with the story at hand, it was very clear as to what happened. He saved a few mins of film and got straight to the point. Various other film clips were used to tell the story. This brings me to the second point, which is Moore’s ability to hold the audiences attention. You have a film about the town of Flint, Michigan and the trouble it went through during the GM plant closings. Right now I can think of a few thousand ways a filmmaker could have taken this story, added his point of view, and bored me out of my mind. That couldn’t be any farther from the truth. I found myself drawn into the story that Michael presented. He used comedy to pick up some slower parts and good camera angles to keep my attention on the screen. As for Story and Characters Moore once again used text book accuracy and added his twist. He picked a few characters and used them through out the film. This is something that kept the audience from getting confused. I think a lot of filmmakers screw up by introducing too many characters. For example, the sheriff deputy was a main character the makes you realize the truth behind what was going on. The Deputy represented the problems and pain that GM was causing by closing the plants.

Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been

The dramatic irony of â€Å"Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? † conveys the tone of warning about temptation. Connie’s situation is that she does not feel appreciated at home and uses her looks and actions to get attention and appreciation from boys even if it is short-term. She is self-conscious about her looks and is constantly worried about how other people perceive her. Friend’s fantasy is that Connie will willingly go with him and be his â€Å"lover† (605) even before he officially met her.The reality of the situation is that she does not want to go with this strange man, but is being forced into it because of her fear, which makes her weak and submissive. Connie is fifteen years old and obviously self-conscious because of the love that she never receives at home. Her whole life revolves around attention from boys since she does not feel loved at home. Her sister June appears to be the favorite in the family, as she receives all of the positiv e attention. Connie's mother doesn’t speak kindly to Connie or about Connie, and Connie doesn't think well of her mother either.Her father does whatever he can to please Connie but doesn’t seek for a good father-daughter relationship. They never talk about what is happening in their lives and act as if they are only acquaintances. Connie wants to appear older and wiser than she actually is and her head is always full of meaningless daydreams to help her cope. Her promiscuity leads to attraction from boys and older men where she becomes terrified and realizes that she is not as grown up as she thought.Connie comes face to face with the harshreality of being forced into adulthood at the age of fifteen because of the special attention of Arnold Friend. 2 Arnold Friend is a smooth talker and has a great influence on the actions of his victims. His word choice appeals to teenagers as does his clothing. He is a short and stocky guy who stuffs his boots to make him seem talle r and wears a leather jacket to look young and desirable to teenage girls. The fact that his feet do not touch the bottom of his boots alludes to the devil’s hoofs, significant in that he resembles the devil’s ability to deceive. Don’t hem in on me. Don’t hog. Don’t crush. Don’t bird dog. Don’t trail me† (608) are slang that he rattles off because he momentarily forgets what sayings are popular so he reconciles by making them up on his own. He has a moment when he breaks down in front of Connie and starts to lose his cool, calm, and collected personality showing his panic in possibly not being able to get his way. This shows that he is narrow-minded and does not settle for anything that he does not approve of.His main focus is on retrieving girls for rape and murder and always goes for the attention-seeking personalities to make it easier to reach this goal. Friend is living a fantasy, while Connie asserts the reality of the sit uation. When these worlds mix, it is obvious that Connie does not have control and Friend becomes dominant. Friend’s alternate world is made up of his desire to have â€Å"dates† and â€Å"lovers† (605) when in actuality, he forces women to show him affection by kidnapping them, raping them, and then killing them.Friend’s forceful words show how he is caught in this dream of what Connie is going to do with him and how perfectly it will all work out in the end when in all actuality, Connie has no intention of willingly going with him. He continuously harps on the fact that he is going to get his way because he insists that his dreams are true. Every time he talks about his fantasy, Connie has a bold statement declaring that she is willing to fight against his dream and 3 bring it back down to a reality as she tries to reason with him. Friend has the gift of persuasion where his greatest tools for manipulation are his words.He â€Å"promises† (607) t hat he will not harm Connie as long as she does not follow through with what he considers threatening. Connie separates her mind from her body because she suddenly loses control. She is used to being on top and empowered but Friend comes along and takes over. The dramatic irony, during the course of their conversation, implies that Connie was in control of the situation to begin with, but Friend managed to obtain ultimate control of the situation by having her succumb to his power. Modern culture promotes having fun and doing what feels good in the moment.Connie has poor communication with her family, shown by her rebellious behavior and lack of respect for her parents. She chooses to distance herself from her family which results in them not being there when she needs them the most. Parents are supposed to be protectors and leaders in their children’s lives and when these key aspects are not present, a window is opened for the victimization of youth. The consequences of such situations result in a predicament like Connie’s and becomes an immense concern for the effects that modern culture has on youth. Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been â€Å"Where are you going, Where have you been:† The Media’s effect on youth In this 1966 short story written by Joyce Carol Oates, fifteen-year-old Connie is a self-absorbed teenager who spends her time fantasizing about romance and searching for attention from men. While out with a suitor, a strange man promises her, â€Å"I'm gonna get you, baby† (2). Connie doesn't think much of the incident until one day while alone at home; the man comes to â€Å"get† her. The assailant, Arnold Friend, is kind at first then progressively becomes aggressive and violent towards her.Though at first she enjoys Arnold’s attention, once his demands become sexual and violent, her confidence diminishes. While Connie attempts to evade Arnold’s commands, she becomes powerless against the man and eventually follows him to â€Å"go for a ride† (3). While â€Å"Where are you going, Where have you been,† appears to simply be a tragic story about the abd uction and rape of a young girl, it is more importantly a statement of the time on the over-sexualization in the media.From the time period the story was written, the 1960’s, we know that society as a whole was exploding with counter-culture and rebellion. In response to the Vietnam War, for the first time in history, music rapidly became highly influential and that of a sexual nature. This first wave of over-sexualized media is what influenced Connie and millions of the time to exploit their sexuality. The youth of the time period are commonly thought of as being extremely responsive to the world around them.With music being more suggestive than in the past and young people being more expressive and experimental, Connie grew up in a drastically changing world complete with the need to be sexual and to really stand out in order to be noticed. Media became more widespread and important in the 60’s than it had ever been before. When the TV and radio weren’t focusi ng on the war efforts in Vietnam, they showed the youth’s protest, and push to â€Å"Make Love, Not War:† an iconic phrase that illustrates the push towards sexuality during that time.Connie, an adolescent of this explosive period, is a prime example of sexualization in the media having a detrimental effect on a person. It is her need to be desired that makes her appealing to Arnold Friend, and leads to her demise later in the story. Music is a major theme in the story: Connie constantly listens to music and associates music with pleasure in multiple instances. At one point, she even says she â€Å"listened to the music that made everything so good† (2). Upon Arnold’s arrival we see that he is listening to the same music as Connie, which serves as a way to connect them.Since music plays such a prevalent role in Connie’s life, we can conclude that music is the media that influences her to behave in a sexual manner. From the music that she listens to , Bobby King, we get the impression that she links her idea of romance (that derives from the music she listens to) to the confidence and maturity she pretends to have when it comes to boys. Music plays in every situation where she intends to be sexually desired; while out with boys, out with her friend searching for attention, while laying out in her backyard, and even at the beginning of her conversation with Arnold.Music and Connie’s sexuality are inextricable tied together–once Connie becomes frightened of Arnold and is no longer exploiting her sexuality, there is no further mention of music in the story. While it is understood that Arnold will most likely harm Connie, he also is whisking her away (or saving her) from a morally loose society–that very same society that made her the over-sexualized girl we see in the beginning of the story.Everything about Connie indicates that she has been socialized into how the media thinks a young girl should be–fr om her suggestive clothing to her desperate attempt to be sexually desirable to the male population. Despite what she leads on, Connie is actually sexually innocent. Her innocence is echoed by her child-like naivety of opening her front door to a complete stranger while alone, as well as the fear that consumes her while she could have been calling the police to prevent her murder.Arnold’s desire for the young Connie may be Oates’ way of portraying how perverse the media’s ploy to sexualize America’s youth is as well. The â€Å"Lolita Effect† is even a relatively recent concept. A â€Å"lolita† is a young girl who is viewed in a sexual manner, while the â€Å"lolita effect† is not only the corruption of a child by an adult, but exploiting an adult by a child that has been corrupted by society. Connie exploits her sexuality so well in the beginning of the story. It is her sexualization at such a young age that causes Arnold to find her attractive and is the real life tragedy that comes from the story.By the end of the story, as the title suggests, Connie undergoes a major change. She ties to be an adult, but when Arnold challenges her with sexual advances, we see the frightened child she is. Arnold is merely an agent to portray the evils that exist in the media. He illuminates the fact that our culture’s media gives young girls the unattainable idea that they must behave in a certain way in order to be attractive, and that a man finding them sexually attractive is of upmost importance even as a pre-teen.The sexualization of young girls causes adult men to be attracted to them, creating an even further over-sexualized society. A young girl’s sexuality is such a vital aspect of the maturation process: a process that is malfunctioning or happening far too soon because of the media. It is the evil in the media that causes Connie to fall victim to the media’s harmful portrayal of femininity. Media teaches us that being a typical young woman in today’s society is contingent on the amount of sexuality her appearance exudes.Connie so perfectly replicates how young girls in America that are being over-sexualized through music or television without even being aware of it. The tragic way that Connie is stripped of her childhood suggests that â€Å"where you are going,† is dependent on where you have been. In â€Å"Where are you going, Where have you been? † Oates’ does a terrific job of hyperbolizing the affects of the media’s influence while pointing out the very unexaggerated truth that over-sexualization in the media is detrimental to all aspects of society.

My Most Exciting Vacation Essay

In the beginning of my holidays was very Boring, my family and me were at home the only interesting that we had had was watch some movies and get a delicious healthy dinner(pizza, hamburgers, tacos, etc)And stay like a happy family. My mom was very chili that was great for everybody because always she get stress all the time my dad as well then we got visit my grandmother and get to sleep there and celebrated my sister’s birthday with all my cousins’ uncles and aunts. We got there for 2 days only because my dad had work but before this I visited all the village, and I feel like a rich guy because everything there was very Cheaper and I can travel myself by a Moto taxi that his cost was 2 pesos to anywhere I can? t complain because y get a lot fun during those days later I went to a lot of friends’ parties because I’m very social(Obviously:D) and in those days I woke up like at 1:00 pm I was very lazy at the vacation but something that I enjoyed a lot was read in my room and get there for hours or almost all the day because it? my favorite hobby. I went out with my friends to Plaza for watch a movie, eat something and talk a little, even passing the time because all were boring at home and have a lot of free time and it was amazing passing time with all of them. Something that I didn? t like was that my Grandpa Can? t stayed with us because he died since 2 years it? s very sad; and I didn? go out of Chiapas as well was something that butters me because previous years we traveled to anyplace. At the end it wasn’t like I imagine but it was good for me because I passed the time with my family friends and people do I care and passing the time with my books and staying in the computer talking and checking my Facebook and finally before enter to classes all my family get a big dinner and saw the soccer game.

Free Essays on History As Mystery

History as mystery Prologue - page xv A dissenting view invites us to test the prevailing explanations and open ourselves to neglected ones. Through this clash of viewpoints we have a better chance of moving toward a closer approximation of historical truth. Dissidents (or revisionists, as they have been called) are not drifting with the mainstream but swimming against it, struggling against the prevailing range of respectable opinion. They are deprived of what Alvin Gouldner called "the background assumptions," the implicit, unexamined. but commonly embraced notions that invite self-confirming acceptance because of their conformity to what is already accepted as properly true. This established familiarity and unanimity of bias is frequently treated as "objectivity." For this reason dissidents are constantly having to defend themselves and argue closely from the evidence. In contrast, orthodoxy can rest on its own unstated axioms and mystifications, remaining heedless of marginalized critics who are denied a means of reaching mass audiences. Orthodoxy promotes its views through the unexamined repetition that comes with monopoly control of the major communication and educational systems. In sum, while dissidents can make mistakes of their own, they are less likely to go unchallenged for it. Not so with orthodoxy. It remains the most insidious form of ideology for it parades the dominant view as the objective one, the only plausible and credible one. *** p5 ... it is a matter of public record that a tiny portion of the population controls the lion's share of the wealth and most of the command positions of state, manufacturing, banking, investment, publishing, higher education, philanthropy, and media. And while not totally immune to popular pressures, these individuals exercise a preponderant influence over what is passed off as public information and democratic discourse. The ruling class is the politically active component of th... Free Essays on History As Mystery Free Essays on History As Mystery History as mystery Prologue - page xv A dissenting view invites us to test the prevailing explanations and open ourselves to neglected ones. Through this clash of viewpoints we have a better chance of moving toward a closer approximation of historical truth. Dissidents (or revisionists, as they have been called) are not drifting with the mainstream but swimming against it, struggling against the prevailing range of respectable opinion. They are deprived of what Alvin Gouldner called "the background assumptions," the implicit, unexamined. but commonly embraced notions that invite self-confirming acceptance because of their conformity to what is already accepted as properly true. This established familiarity and unanimity of bias is frequently treated as "objectivity." For this reason dissidents are constantly having to defend themselves and argue closely from the evidence. In contrast, orthodoxy can rest on its own unstated axioms and mystifications, remaining heedless of marginalized critics who are denied a means of reaching mass audiences. Orthodoxy promotes its views through the unexamined repetition that comes with monopoly control of the major communication and educational systems. In sum, while dissidents can make mistakes of their own, they are less likely to go unchallenged for it. Not so with orthodoxy. It remains the most insidious form of ideology for it parades the dominant view as the objective one, the only plausible and credible one. *** p5 ... it is a matter of public record that a tiny portion of the population controls the lion's share of the wealth and most of the command positions of state, manufacturing, banking, investment, publishing, higher education, philanthropy, and media. And while not totally immune to popular pressures, these individuals exercise a preponderant influence over what is passed off as public information and democratic discourse. The ruling class is the politically active component of th...

This is My Life essays

This is My Life essays I think that the phrase  ¡the search for meaning ¡ can be explained by the theories in the text. People are curious, that is how we are. Lovat explains that at a very early stage of history people probably became curious and began to wonder at universal problems like: h What is the purpose of life? h How does the universe work? h Where did the universe come from? The answers can only be guessed by the archaeological findings of history. No person alive knows the exact true meaning of life. Many claim to have some idea of it, but of course, none can be found. People search for the meaning of life for many reasons. Some are frustrated with hardships and wonder,  ¡What is the point of going on? Why am I even here, just to endure this cruel game? ¡ Some say that we are here to learn lessons, to prepare us for things to come. Others think we have many lives, believing in the theory of reincarnation, or that each life is a journey to the ultimate. Many claim that life is a trial, where depending on  ¡how well you behave ¡ you will go to Heaven or Hell. Since early times, people have searched for the meaning of life, people are curious beings, and it will always be that way, even if there is no real way of finding the exact meaning. Some think that through the hard times they will some how grasp an insight into what is life. Many people of today ¡s society, much like that of ancient times, try to find the exact meaning, and are frustrated when they don ¡t. Some spend time alone, try to reflect, some travel great distances to temples and so on, on the other side of the world after hearing claims that it will clear your mind and you will see life for what it truly is. The Old Stage Age people started the practice of burying the dead and this practice makes humans different from other species. We know that the people w ...

Conjugation Tables for the Italian Verb Giocare

Conjugation Tables for the Italian Verb 'Giocare' Giocare is a versatile Italian verb meaning to play, matter, come into play, gamble, deceive, or even trick. It is a regular  first-conjugation Italian verb.  Giocare  is either a transitive verb (meaning it takes a  direct object) or intransitive verb (meaning it does not take a  direct object) and is conjugated with the  auxiliary verb  avere. First-Conjugation Verbs Before conjugating  giocare, its important to understand what first-conjugation Italian verbs are and how they are conjugated. Verbs with infinitives ending in –are are called first-conjugation, or –are, verbs. The present tense of a regular –are verb is formed by dropping the infinitive ending –are and adding the appropriate endings to the resulting stem. There is a different ending for each person. There are two types of first-conjugation verbs: with verbs like giocare ending in –care (as well as similar verbs like  cercare,  to try  and  caricare,  to charge) and –gare (such as  litigare, to fight, and  legare, to bond), you add an h immediately after the root with declinations startining with e or i to  maintain the hard c or hard g sound. The Auxiliary Verb Avere In Italian, an auxiliary verb- either  avere  (which is paired with giocare) or  essere- is used whenever forming  compound tenses. The auxiliary (or helping) verb, in combination with another, gives a particular meaning to the conjugated verb form. For example, compound tenses such as the  passato prossimo  are formed with the present indicative of the auxiliary verb  avere  or  essere  and the  participio  passato, â€Å" past participle. Conjugating Giocare The tables provide conjugations for tenses and moods of the verb giocare.  Where available, links provide an opportunity to find further information about the meaning and use of the mood or tense. Indicative/Indicativo Presente io gioco tu giochi lui, lei, Lei gioca noi giochiamo voi giocate loro, Loro giocano Imperfetto io giocavo tu giocavi lui, lei, Lei giocava noi giocavamo voi giocavate loro, Loro giocavano Passato Remoto io giocai tu giocasti lui, lei, Lei gioc noi giocammo voi giocaste loro, Loro giocarono Futuro Semplice io giocher tu giocherai lui, lei, Lei giocher noi giocheremo voi giocherete loro, Loro giocheranno Passato Prossimo io ho giocato tu hai giocato lui, lei, Lei ha giocato noi abbiamo giocato voi avete giocato loro, Loro hanno giocato Trapassato Prossimo io avevo giocato tu avevi giocato lui, lei, Lei aveva giocato noi avevamo giocato voi avevate giocato loro, Loro avevano giocato Trapassato Remoto io ebbi giocato tu avesti giocato lui, lei, Lei ebbe giocato noi avemmo giocato voi aveste giocato loro, Loro ebbero giocato Future Anteriore io avr giocato tu avrai giocato lui, lei, Lei avr giocato noi avremo giocato voi avrete giocato loro, Loro avranno giocato Subjunctive/Congiuntivo Presente io giochi tu giochi lui, lei, Lei giochi noi giochiamo voi giochiate loro, Loro giochino Imperfetto io giocassi tu giocassi lui, lei, Lei giocasse noi giocassimo voi giocaste loro, Loro giocassero Passato io abbia giocato tu abbia giocato lui, lei, Lei abbia giocato noi abbiamo giocato voi abbiate giocato loro, Loro abbiano giocato Trapassato io avessi giocato tu avessi giocato lui, lei, Lei avesse giocato noi avessimo giocato voi aveste giocato loro, Loro avessero giocato Conditional/Condizionale Presente io giocherei tu giocheresti lui, lei, Lei giocherebbe noi giocheremmo voi giochereste loro, Loro giocherebbero Passato io avrei giocato tu avresti giocato lui, lei, Lei avrebbe giocato noi avremmo giocato voi avreste giocato loro, Loro avrebbero giocato Imperative/Imperativo Presente gioca giochi giochiamo giocate giochino Infinitive/Infinito Presente giocare Passato avere giocato Participle/Participio Presente giocante Passato giocato Gerund/Gerundio Presente giocando Passato avendo giocato

Unity (1918) and the Evolution of Disease Essay

Unity (1918) and the Evolution of Disease - Essay Example The evolution of the disease itself (and, indeed, any disease) unfolds in much the same way as the action in Unity, with people going through biological and psychological reactions to the illness, as the people in the town react to the disease itself. The purpose of this paper is to explore the similarities between the way a disease evolves and how the community evolved in reaction to Spanish Influenza. The community of Unity went through several changes from paranoia and fear to blame and devastation, as a disease would. The action in Unity relies on an infection metaphor in a number of ways. In the play, Kerr uses the small town itself as a representation of the Canadian national front with the influenza itself representing a German invader, as in the just-ended First World War. The fear of the disease is similar to the fear of the enemy, an interesting topic considering the historical setting of the play. Biologically, most people have a fear of becoming ill, and a further fear of death. The Spanish Influenza was likely to kill because of its virulent nature, and the fear of death here can be found in both the fear of invasion and the fear of disease. It is interesting that Kerr here combines the infection metaphor with the historical context to add further depth to the play. Infection and war have very similar ways of manifesting themselves, usually becoming worse without action . The war is a useful backdrop for an infection metaphor, because it highlights the similarities between the two. In Unity the inhabitants of the community fight against the infection in very militaristic terms, using expressions such as ‘take up arms’. In the medical world, similar lexis is used when considering how to combat disease; we ‘fight’ an infection, and ‘kill’ a fever. As an illness manifests itself, medicine becomes more useful to ‘combat’ the disease, and as a war starts, it is necessary to ‘combat’ the enemy. Kerr uses these similarities very wisely, particularly by bringing in a third concept of ‘combat’ centred on the town of Unity and their attitudes towards the Spanish flu, intricately using all three concepts in a similar way. The town of Unity, before the disease hits, has a fear and a paranoia of the Spanish Influenza, even going to such lengths to ban trains from stopping in the town and going to extreme lengths to prevent the spread. This can be compared to the more modern paranoia about the AIDS epidemic. In this case, many people that have no connection to the disease have a fear of catching it, which is a similar reaction to many diseases. Before Unity has any direct contact with the Spanish flu, extreme measures are taken to prevent the disease. There are a number of actions by governments worldwide to instil fear about the AIDS epidemic, too, which is metaphorically very similar to the actions taken by the town of Unity in reaction to the Spanish flu. It has been shown that fear of disease is one of the most common fears surrounding an epidemic (Mast, 1998), so Kerr uses this similarity wisely and accurately. The character Beatrice explains this best; ‘The town has been quarantined. Not because of illness but because of fear of illness’. The first member of the community to fall ill is Michael, a non-local. The treatment of Michael completely changes when Unity finds out he has the Spanish flu, he is treated like ‘

Why People Consider Malala Yusafzai To Be A Heroine Essay

Why People Consider Malala Yusafzai To Be A Heroine - Essay Example Malala's courage and her strong opinion towards girls' education have won her awards, medals, and fame. So far, Malala is the youngest person to win the Nobel Peace Prize. Malala was nominated for the International Children's Peace Prize by The KidsRights Foundation and she was awarded National Peace Award by the Pakistani government. Magazines and Medias also followed closely Malala’s campaigns, and her profile was published in Vanity Fair Magazine. The Times Magazine also published her profile stating she was one among the most influential people at the time. Her inclusion in the media, being recognized by the government as well as magazines publishing about her passion for the girl's education contributed to Malala's heroisms. And as Merriam states, success comes because of hard work, skillful and creative political analysis. Being noted by the media gave Malala the enthusiasm to follow her instincts, which led to increased vocals on the subject of girls’ education. Encouragement from her father motivated her, especially after her recovery. Malala confronted anyone who could do something to ensure this dream comes true. For example, the US convoy at the valley was not left out. Even though her campaigns increased the threat to herself and family, Malala never gave up, she even went further to take her campaigns around the world. Malala has been to Nigeria where she personally met President Goodluck Jonathan and requested him to press for action to free the 200 girls held by Boko Haram, Islamist militants.

Applications of the Scientific Method Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applications of the Scientific Method - Essay Example From the business perspective, scientific methods help in making decisions, solving problems strategically or even for testing a new idea in the market. The specific problem taken for discussion is about developing a new product that is superior to competitor’s brands. We shall present a detailed analysis of the proposed hypothesis and evaluate the results for understanding the factors influencing the problem and its outcome. Scientific methods help the businesses to deal with the problems in a systematic replicable manner. The process starts with identifying the problem, analyzing the possible factors based on experience, and then forming the hypothesis that would help resolve the problem. The proposed hypothesis has to be testable and it is essential to gather data and information for testing the prediction, and finally it has to be evaluated on the basis of the outcomes generated. The scientific approach indeed requires a valid testing of the hypothesis with the available data, rather than relying solely on intuition and theoretical knowledge. Though scientific methods are successful in various fields, it is not so with the world of business, marketing and policies. The tendency of businesses to deal with the unpredictable human behavior makes the scientific methods to be less plausible. However, adopting the scientific methods for business decision-making can provide a better understanding of the potential market factors as well as the causal effects. â€Å"Product development plans can be best realized by taking the scientific method or at least the scientific temper of analysis and experimentation, which is followed by product decisions.† (Mathur, 2009, p.108). When developing a new product that is superior to competitor’s brands, the business has to analyze the existing demands and needs of the consumer’s market. The hypothesis presented is that the new products in the consumer market

Public Meeting Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Public Meeting Paper - Assignment Example The meeting was arranged to explain new regulations and provide answers to questions about them. Most local government officials voluntarily select to seek the public’s input with regard to the development of legislation. The meetings I attended at the Tempe City Council in Arizona was aimed at accomplishing their core aim of giving citizens the opportunity to directly influence decisions made by the governing bodies. I came to find out that during the conduction of regular City Council meetings and Issue Review Sessions, they are broadcasted live on Tempe Channel 11 which is the City’s government access channel. As noted by Sharp, Smith and Patton (pp.2-4) people tend to more readily accept government policies if they had a role in its development. The City Council’s public meeting serves a very crucial democratic function by offering the citizens with the opportunity to convey information to officials, to set up future agendas, attracting the attention of the m edia, persuade public opinion, and delay decisions as well as communicating with the other citizens. So as to ensure that the meeting goes on smoothly as witnessed at Tempe City Council you require utmost planning for the meeting. First, determine the purpose of the meeting. The meeting was intended to inform, consult and involve the general public. The objective of the meeting needs to be reiterated at the commencement of the meeting in order to set parameters for those in attendance. Second, you need to create a relationship with participants in advance. The inclusion of diverse citizens who possess significant interest in the outcome of the meeting ensures that relevant information about the specific issue is not overlooked. Thirdly, before conducting any meeting a draft agenda needs to be developed. The real agenda to be followed was prepared by the City Clerk. The City Council agenda are publicly posted at least 24 hours before the meeting. On that particular day, the Tempe Cit y Council had the following in their agenda. (1)The miscellaneous items included: approval of Maryanne Corder Neighborhood Grant Program to the tune of $150,000 to home owners and neighborhoods; approval for the amendment of Magellan Health Service of Arizona; and finally, holding a public hearing to recommend the approval of a Series 01 in the government’s liquor license designated for Lipsmark LLC among many others. (2) Award of bids or contracts, such as approving the use of a one year state of Arizona contract with Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company for the acquisition of tires and tubes and award of a construction contract to AJP Electric to enhance the intersection at Broadway Road and Priest Drive. (3) Ordinances and item for first hearing which included the introducing and holding first public hearing to adopt an ordinance allowing partial abandonment of storm drainage easement situated near 2150 East Warmer Road. (4) Ordinances and items for second hearing. (5) Resolut ions: adoption of a resolution to permit the Mayor to effect an agreement between the Tempe City and Slat River Pima Maricopa Indian Community as well as an agreement between Arizona State and Tempe Police Department to accept federal grant funds for impaired driver alcohol

Metaphysics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Metaphysics - Essay Example In this paper, the author examines the concept of metaphysics by surveying the changes in the use of the term, from the ancient, philosophic sense, to the contemporary esoteric sense, such as that found in New Age teachings. Ancient Metaphysics The term â€Å"metaphysics† was coined by Andronicus, the editor of Aristotle’s works, to refer to the collection of writings that dealt with a subject outside of physics, that is, Aristotle’s works on the natural or physical sciences. Aristotle himself did not refer to his works as being divided into the Physical and the Metaphysical. Instead, he somewhat classified his works as dealing primarily with the nature of the natural or physical world, and those that deal with first causes. But does it make sense to make such a distinction? It appears that it does make sense, because in seeking to understand the nature of the physical world, Aristotle argues that the latter is characterized by change. Thus, Aristotle’s ph ysics deals with change. Consequently, the â€Å"metaphysics† or those â€Å"beyond or after the physics† deals with first causes, or those that do not change. This latter point explains why the concept of Being is central to Aristotle’s metaphysics. ... In tackling the question of Being and existence, metaphysics deals essentially with the question of reality. In book 12 of his Metaphysics, Aristotle writes that â€Å"the subject of our inquiry is substance; for the principles and the causes we are seeking are those of substances. For if the universe is of the nature of a whole, substance is its first part† (â€Å"Metaphysics†). Indeed, if the observable world is subject to change, of what substance is this world made of? Could there be an unchanging, hence, metaphysical substance? In other words, he was preoccupied with examining the nature of reality. Modern Metaphysics In the e-book, Metaphysics (2006), Ethan Vorly states that â€Å"Metaphysics is the science of all realms, their laws and functions†(2). He defines metaphysics as the â€Å"study of multi-dimensional energies, forces and substances† (5). This view of metaphysics clearly delves into the esoteric interpretation of the term. In discussing m etaphysics along the lines of energy forces and dimensions of existence, Vorly has much in common with the Eastern philosophies of Taoism and Confucianism. For example, he writes of reality in terms of an Ultimate Reality, not very different from the Eastern concept of Tao. In this sense, an esoteric understanding of metaphysics is somewhat consistent with the ancient Greek conception of the term, to the extent that there is a search for an ultimate principle or substance, as Aristotle would refer to it. However, while the ancient Greek approach to the question of reality was meant to gain an understanding of the nature of reality itself, the modern esoteric interpretation of metaphysics tends

Drugs and Alcohol in Mass Media Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Drugs and Alcohol in Mass Media - Term Paper Example Movies of the mid-twentieth century and later of the American origin showed individual characters as heavy drunkards and social destroyers. Many of them had the protagonists play the role of alcoholics who had to conceal their psychological traits for some untold reasons. Some of the observations suggest that, films from the American, German and Canadian culture exposed male characters as alcoholics and barmen with a view to tell the evil sides liquor as it is a destroyer of personal and social life of individuals; while in French movies, alcohol consumption was treated as a family routine (Blocker, Fahey & Tyrrell, 2003, p.238). The debate on how movies and other popular culture demonstrate the role of both men and women as stakeholders in the world of alcohol invites great attention. Not only that a scene involving alcohol consumption gains concentration of the audience, but also it encourages their internal urge for making such light moments. The presentation of violence in visual media through gang wars hired assassinations and communal issues etc present in movies and video clips are also associated with a drinking background. This kind of exposure to alcohol-motivated stimulation of courage grabs the attention of the teenagers who normally make a sense to imitate some of the things they obtain from the source videos. Narcotic drugs are generally considered as an addictive substance; therefore its consumption is observed as a challenge beyond the individual boundaries. Unlike alcohol, drugs of different kinds have varying ranges of influence on their users. Regular use of narcotic drugs causes irresistible addiction which makes the users mentally unstable and physically discouraged from carrying out their daily activities. According to a report by Sacramento-El Dorado Medical Society (1990), addiction is redefined as the compulsory and uncontrolled abuse of psychoactive materials by individuals irrespective of their harmful impacts. Some of the drugs can even generate violent behavior traits in them, which may prove harmful to their families and other members of the society.

Metaphysics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Metaphysics - Essay Example In this paper, the author examines the concept of metaphysics by surveying the changes in the use of the term, from the ancient, philosophic sense, to the contemporary esoteric sense, such as that found in New Age teachings. Ancient Metaphysics The term â€Å"metaphysics† was coined by Andronicus, the editor of Aristotle’s works, to refer to the collection of writings that dealt with a subject outside of physics, that is, Aristotle’s works on the natural or physical sciences. Aristotle himself did not refer to his works as being divided into the Physical and the Metaphysical. Instead, he somewhat classified his works as dealing primarily with the nature of the natural or physical world, and those that deal with first causes. But does it make sense to make such a distinction? It appears that it does make sense, because in seeking to understand the nature of the physical world, Aristotle argues that the latter is characterized by change. Thus, Aristotle’s ph ysics deals with change. Consequently, the â€Å"metaphysics† or those â€Å"beyond or after the physics† deals with first causes, or those that do not change. This latter point explains why the concept of Being is central to Aristotle’s metaphysics. ... In tackling the question of Being and existence, metaphysics deals essentially with the question of reality. In book 12 of his Metaphysics, Aristotle writes that â€Å"the subject of our inquiry is substance; for the principles and the causes we are seeking are those of substances. For if the universe is of the nature of a whole, substance is its first part† (â€Å"Metaphysics†). Indeed, if the observable world is subject to change, of what substance is this world made of? Could there be an unchanging, hence, metaphysical substance? In other words, he was preoccupied with examining the nature of reality. Modern Metaphysics In the e-book, Metaphysics (2006), Ethan Vorly states that â€Å"Metaphysics is the science of all realms, their laws and functions†(2). He defines metaphysics as the â€Å"study of multi-dimensional energies, forces and substances† (5). This view of metaphysics clearly delves into the esoteric interpretation of the term. In discussing m etaphysics along the lines of energy forces and dimensions of existence, Vorly has much in common with the Eastern philosophies of Taoism and Confucianism. For example, he writes of reality in terms of an Ultimate Reality, not very different from the Eastern concept of Tao. In this sense, an esoteric understanding of metaphysics is somewhat consistent with the ancient Greek conception of the term, to the extent that there is a search for an ultimate principle or substance, as Aristotle would refer to it. However, while the ancient Greek approach to the question of reality was meant to gain an understanding of the nature of reality itself, the modern esoteric interpretation of metaphysics tends

The disaster in the Gulf of Mexico for BP Essay

The disaster in the Gulf of Mexico for BP - Essay Example It took several weeks and months for the oil cleanup team to contain the disaster caused on the marine waters. BP accepted the criminal responsibility hence paying 4.5 billion dollar in damages. Today, the oil company faces its biggest court challenges. The American government said that the company was grossly negligence (Freudenburg & Gramling 2011, p. 173). The paper will provide a comprehensive knowledge of the legal issues and how the case would affect future operations of the company. It will also identify some of the Human Resource issues involved. After the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, both the American government and the company started their investigations to establish what exactly led to the disaster. They were also required to provide adequate solutions that could prevent future oils spills. Some of the organizations given the authority by the American government to carry out investigations included National Academy of Engineering, Mineral Management Service, and the National Oil Spill Commission (Slorach, Embley, Goodchild & Shephard, 2013, p. 349). This led to many hearings being carried out by the American House Committee on Energy. Consequently, it was discovered that the machine which was used to prevent the rig from blowing had experienced a hydraulic leak and its battery also stopped working. This machine was constructed by the Cameron International Corporation. A number of investigative reports did not only put the blame on BP Oil Company, but also on Transocean. The supervisors misinterpreted the pressure informatio n and ordered the rig operators to substitute the drilling fluid with seawater. This could not prevent the already leaking gas from moving up the rig leading to a huge explosion. Report released by the Oil Spill Commission indicated that the spillage was caused by poor management decisions. The other possible cause was that the well was hurriedly

The Relationship of Music Education Essay Example for Free

The Relationship of Music Education Essay The growing academic achievement gap observed in academic institutions in the United States has prompted numerous research studies conducted to find ways and means to improve the academic performance of school-aged children in the country. Based on such studies conducted, it has been determined that the incorporation of music education as part of the curriculum used among pre-school, elementary and high school students can help improve the level of academic performance observed in these levels. As such, there are now a number of different websites found over the Internet promoting this method of teaching school-aged children of various levels. However, there are still a number of groups that remain skeptical about its effectiveness. This paper aims to provide information proving that the incorporation of music education to school curricula of different levels result to an improvement of the academic performance of school-aged children. Apart from providing the numerous benefits advocated by different websites supporting this, this paper would look into studies published in academic journals available in Internet databases proving its effectiveness, the claims provided by skeptics that have caused them to conclude that there is no relationship between the use of music education and the improvement of the academic performance of school-aged children would also be presented. Music Education and Academic Performance As previously mentioned, there are a numerous Internet websites now advocating the use of music education as a means to improve the academic performance of school-aged children of different levels. This is because research studies have shown positive and promising results particularly among children with special needs such as those with autism and those that have been considered as children at-risk. In one study, the researcher found that the incorporation of music education in the classroom led to the creation of an environment where children with autism become more successful academically since they determined that students with autism are able to respond more efficiently with the use of music stimuli (Darrow 2009). In another study, it was determined that through the incorporation of music education, members of the faculty and administration have seen that there has been a decline in the number of students dropping out of school as compared to those that did not utilize these programs. In fact, they found that 93% of students dropping out are those that are not included in any music education program (Olson 2008). Internet websites that promote the incorporation of music education as a way to provide school-aged children the ability to develop and enhance various skills which have been considered as essential for the success of school-aged children not just in school but also within the corporate world. Some of these skills include mathematics, creativity and communication skills. It was also determined that through the use of music education as a part of the curriculum of school-aged children allow them to develop traits and personalities that would make them productive members of society. These include developing a sense of self-discipline, less prone to outbursts of rage and anger and substance dependency. These claims presented in these Internet websites are supported by various research studies released by such institutions such as the U. S. Department of Education and the College Board of New York (Children’s Music Workshop 2006; Zhang 2007). While this may be the case, other Internet websites have been found to refute such claims and benefits. One of which is a website that features the study presented to the Australian Association for Research in Education entitled No Evidence for a Mozart Effect in School Aged Children. In this study, the researchers have stipulated that while there have been numerous studies claiming that the use of classical music and other methods of incorporating music education in school curriculum have caused an improvement in the academic performance in some academic institutions, this does not happen each and every single instance. This is due to the fact that other factors such as the cultural of the academic institution and the quality of the teachers facilitating the education of the students play a major role in the overall academic performance of school-aged children (Crncec, Wilson Prior 2002). In another Internet website, it was stated that while music education does help most school-aged children with special needs, this does not encompass all children with special needs. To be specific, children with auditory disorders such as auditory process disorder, or APD, are unable to comprehend sound elements. As a result, the incorporation of music education to the curriculum of school-aged children would only be unbeneficial for these children. In fact, it may even cause these children to exhibit the very issues that Internet websites promoting the use of music education are able to address (Nikolaidou, Iliadou, Kaprinis, Hadjileontiadis Kaprinis 2009). Conclusion The incorporation of music education in school curriculum has, in no doubt, been able to help in the improvement of the academic performance of school-aged children in different levels. The promising results presented by research studies conducted have been found to be consistent when these principles have been applied by various academic institutions, particularly pre-school and elementary schools. As a result, the incorporation of music education has now been endorsed by various local and government organizations involved in the improvement of the overall academic performance of academic institutions in the country. While there are limitations to how much of an improvement may be observed in one academic institution as presented earlier, the consistency observed on the contribution music education to the overall academic performance continuous to make a viable method to be used in schools throughout the country. References Children’s Music Workshop. (2006). Music education online. Retrieved from http://www. childrensmusicworkshop. com/advocacy/benefits. html. Crncec, R. J. , Wilson, S. J. Prior, M. (2002, December). No evidence for a Mozart effect in school aged children. Retrieved from http://www. aare. edu. au/02pap/crn02420. htm. Darrow, A. (2009). Adapting for students with autism. General music today, 22(2), 24-26. doi: 10. 1177/1048371308328384. Nikolaidou, G. N. , Iliadou, V. T. , Kaprinis, S. G. , Hadjileontiadis, L. J. Kaprinis, G. S. (2009). Primary school music education and the effect of auditory processing disorders: pedagogical/ICT-based implications. Retrieved from the IEEE Xplore Web site: http://ieeexplore. ieee. org/Xplore/login.  jsp? url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore. ieee. org %2Fiel5%2F4561602%2F4561603%2F04561902. pdf%3Farnumber%3D4561902a uthDecision=-203. Olson, C. A. (2008). Can music education help at-risk students? Study finds positive testimony substantial but quantitative research lacking. Teaching music, 16(3), 20. Retrieved from ERIC database (10697446, 20081101). Zhang, L. (2007, March). Benefits of music education for your child. Retrieved from http://www. articlesbase. com/education-articles/benefits-of-music-education-for-your- child-124538. html.

Impact of Media in Shaping Perceptions and Policies

Impact of Media in Shaping Perceptions and Policies CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Information Age has seen a transformation in the nature of war. The emerging trend is towards low intensity conflicts and proxy war waged between states and non-state actors. Information Warfare, Information Operations and Psychological Operations have come to dominate the battle space. Besides military dominance, warring sides aim to create positive perception to gain international support and public acceptance towards their strategic goals. The media, including print, radio, television and internet has become a preferred channel to this end. History is studded with a number of instances where media was effectively utilized to shape perceptions and influence the will of allies as well as adversaries. Right from the Boer War, World Wars One and Two, the Vietnam War and the various Gulf conflicts, the victors have successfully conducted intensive campaigns to create and sustain a favorable narrative. The United States of America, during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan an d Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq embedded journalists with its frontline forces. As a consequence, the global audience was exposed to a new intensity and immediacy of combat never before experienced. The massive information overload thus produced almost entirely favored the United States and its Coalition allies. Despite criticism for indiscriminate and subjective broadcasting of violence without context or commentary, the embedded journalists garnered the bulk of global attention and were faithful purveyors of the Coalition narrative. In the Indian context, the war of 1971 was an example where media, including international war correspondents, accompanied the forces advancing in the East. There was no attempt made to either hinder or influence their reporting. At present, the Indian Army is faced with a proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir where both the adversary state and its non-state proxies contest the nation in the military, political as well as the information domain. The violent actions of terrorist groups are complemented by a massive media offensive. The aim is to influence perceptions of the domestic audience and the global community. Then Chief of Army Staff, General B C Joshi, had referred to the media as a Force Multiplier while giving out guidelines to the Army deployed in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir in 1994.[1] Until Kargil, the thrust of Army Media interaction was to highlight the Army’s role in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief, focus on sports, jubilee celebrations and to avoid me dia glare during operations. However, the 1999 Kargil conflict was a watershed in wartime reporting. Until then, media was viewed as a meddlesome diversion at best and a threat to Operational Security at worst. During the conflict, the Indian Army realized the potential of the media to gain an Information Warfare advantage over the adversary. In view of this experience, and in line with the report of the Kargil Review Committee report, the Army changed its media policy. It is perhaps time to take a cue from the United States of America and explore the feasibility of embedding journalists with troops engaged in fighting the proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. At first glance, the concept seems impractical and pointless; however, a strong case may exist in its favor. METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem The impact of media in shaping perceptions and influencing policies needs no further evidence. However, the Information Warfare advantage that may be gained by the Indian Army in the proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir from embedded journalists has not been studied in detail. With a visible slant in media against the prolonged military campaign in general and the Armed Forces Special powers Act in particular, there is a need to analyze the likely results of embedded journalists. Is the experience of Coalition forces in the Global War On Terrorism relevant to the Indian context? Is there a need to modify the concept of media interaction accordingly? Will the outcome justify the risks? Hypothesis Embedding journalists with troops engaged in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir will present an Information Warfare advantage to the Indian Army. Justification of the Study At present, the Indian Army is alive to the reality of conducting operations in the full glare of the media. However, there is little enthusiasm among the majority of the rank and file towards media interaction. The anti-establishment tone of the vernacular media has fostered a sense of passive hostility towards all media in general. The possibility of embedded journalists revealing classified information and indulging in sensationalizing sensitive issues has also influenced the leadership to restrict the scope of media interaction in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. Scope The scope of the study being vast, the paper concentrates on the possible implications of embedding journalists with troops engaged in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. The paper highlights the need to increase media interaction and brings out the advantages of ensuring broadcast of a favorable narrative across all forms of media. It also aims to support the hypothesis with research on similar initiatives elsewhere in time and space. Operational Definitions The special terms used in this dissertation are defined below :- (a)Â  Information Warfare.[2]Â  The offensive and defensive use of information and information systems to deny, exploit, corrupt or destroy an adversary’s information, information based processes, information systems, and computer based networks while protecting one’s own. Such actions are designed to achieve advantages over military or political adversaries. (b)Â  Information Operations.[3]Â  The integrated employment of electronic warfare, computer network operations, psychological operations, military deception, and operations security, in concert with specified supporting and related capabilities, to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp adversarial human and automated decision making, while protecting our own. (c)Â  Psychological Operations.[4]Â  Efforts to convey selected truthful information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning and ultimately, the behavior of their governments, organizations, groups and individuals. Methods of Data Collection The sources of reference are :- (a) Books from Defence Services Staff College library. (b) Articles from newspapers, magazines and journals. (c) Articles from the Internet. (d) Interactions with serving and retired Army officers, journalists and bureaucrats. Organization of the Dissertation It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner :- (a)Â  Chapter I. Introduction and Methodology. (b)Â  Chapter II. Historical Background of Army Media Relationship. This chapter covers the origin of modern combat journalism and the rise in the influence of media in conflicts. (c)Â  Chapter III. Information Operations and Media. This chapter highlights the utilization of media for perception shaping and conducting successful Information Operations. A special case is made of the Kargil conflict, 1993. (d)Â  Chapter IV. Embedded Journalists in the Global War On Terror. This chapter looks at the Coalition experience of embedded journalism to draw relevant lessons for the Indian context. (e)Â  Chapter V. Suggested Contours of Media Interaction. This chapter draws a theoretical model for embedded journalism in Jammu and Kashmir, to meet the requirements of the Indian Army. (f)Â  Chapter VI. Advantages from Embedded Journalists in Jammu and. This chapter relates the relevance of embedded media in fighting proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. (g)Â  Chapter VII. Conclusion. The conclusion will knit together the relevant aspects of all chapters to summarize the research and point the way ahead. The final statement of the hypothesis will be made in light of the evidence studied. While the paper will be ended, there will pointers to further research included, given the vast scope of the subject. [1] Chakraborty, A K Information War : Challenges In The Twentyfirst Century. Noida; Trishul, 2003, p.15. [2] Forest, James J.F.,ed. Influence Warfare : How Terrorists And Governments Fight To Shape Perceptions In A War Of Ideas. New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2010, p.10. [3] ibidem [4] ibidem

Applied Behavior Analysis Essay -- Autism Autistic Disorders Essays

Applied Behavior Analysis What is Autism? Autism is a neurological disorder delaying overall development and functioning. Children with autism generally experience prominent delays in the development of language, non-verbal communication, cognitive abilities, adaptive functioning, and social interaction. Children with autism often exhibit self stimulatory behavior such as spinning, rocking, hand flapping, or other peculiar motor behaviors. Autistic children can also be characterized by repetitive behavior and obsession with routine. Wide ranges of severity exist among those affected, for example, communication development can be displayed through complex language acquisition or the child may demonstrate no form of communication at all. A Parent's Perspective If you receive a diagnosis of Autism for your child, it can be devastating. Finding the appropriate help for your child can prove to be a painstaking endeavor. It is common for parents to receive conflicting, and/or erroneous information about the treatment of Autism from various professionals. The purpose of this pamphlet is to explain a mode of treatment known as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and its potential effectiveness. What is ABA? ABA is a comprehensive behavior program incorporating all aspects of a child's life. It is characterized by a systematic teaching program. Every learning objective is broken down into the simplest form and taught to the child in a one-to-one (child/teacher) format. As skills are developed, complexity is added and generalization into all parts of the child's life is expected. The primary teaching method is known as discrete trial teaching. Discrete trial teaching occurs in a highly structured environ... ... 28 Nov. 2001. Connecticut Families for Effective Autism Treatment. 7 Feb. 2002 <http://www.ctfeat.org/daversabafinal.htm > Saffran, R. â€Å"What is ABA?†, Jul. 1997. ABA Resources for Recovery of Autism/PDD/Hyperlexia. 7 Feb. 2002 <http://members.tripod.com/Rsaffran/whatisaba.html> Leaf, Ron, McEachin, John, Editors. A Work in Progress: Behavior Management Strategies and a Curriculum for Intensive Behavioral Treatment of Autism. New York: DRL Books, 1999. "Early Behavior Intervention for Autism: What Does Reserach Tell Us?" by Green, G. as found in Behavior Intervention for Young Children with Autism, edited by C. Maurice, G. Green, S. Luce "Roll Call of Recovered Kids", <http://home.san.rr.com/autismnet/rollcall.html> provided through The Autism Network Resources for Physicians website, 2000-20001.<http://home.san.rr.com/autismnet/>

Fast food Essay

Recently, fast food has been from the most popular way for a lot of people. Nowadays, people think that they don’t have plenty of time to prepare food. However, a lot of families have been addicted to that type of fast food, finding it so easy and comfortable for their busy life. Fast food should not be banned because it is a freedom of choice, it has a lot of social benefits and the government offers high taxes on those places which serves that type of food. First of all, every person has the right to choose what to eat or what to drink. It is the freedom of choice. People should be able to put whatever they want in their bodies, whether it be unhealthy or not. Fast food industries started making less harmful products and reducing obesity, but people make their own decision to eat it knowing it is bad for them. So, it is their own responsibility to take care of their own health. Yes, fast food is not doubt unhealthy for people almost all the time. But in modern life, fast food can be helpful and sometimes quite enjoyable. Engle, â€Å"Because to take away a man’s freedom of choice, even his freedom to make the wrong choice, is to manipulate him as though he were a puppet and not a person. † ) In United States, fast-food restaurants popularity is growing every single second. Nowadays, people can afford any a whole meal for 6 to 7 dollars each. (Bose D,N. D) fast food restaurants can provide customers with simple large meal sets with minimal cost. People admit that fast food restaurant helps them getting their life more easy, comfort and uncomplicated. For instance, if the two parents were having a lot of late work and late meetings and their kids were home without food for dinner without any cooked food, they can pull over at any near restaurant to order food before heading to their shelter. (Clark S, 2010) fast food restaurants are located nearly everywhere, providing customers with simple meals without the need to spend time travelling far distance just to purchase food. This popularity of fast food is increasing because of their main causes: low cost, fast service and restaurants is available everywhere. These are a lot of social benefits and other benefits for fast food that it leads to family gathering, giving that chance to the family to gather with their children, where a lot of these fast food restaurants have some games for those children or some luxury calm places for other families. .Otherwise, today a lot of people and teenagers hangout in a lot of fast food restaurants as a friends outing. However, a lot of people think that fast food is from the most dangerous things that should be banned due to its diseases firstly because it makes you obese; secondly it links a lot of medical problems like diabetes. Some think it leads to cancer and one of the most reasons that fast food lead to gaining of a lot of weight due to obesity. But fast food companies and industries nowadays is trying to fix that kind of problems by producing a lot of healthy choices for fast food as McDonalds, chili’s, Kfc and Papa Jones have produces a lot of diet food and drinks and healthy choices in order to satisfy all the needs needed by all ages of people with different opinions and choices. (Wolverson M. N,2009) fast food provide customers with a wide range of food to choose from. In conclusion , everything in our lives have pros and cons ,advantages and disadvantages . fast food has advantages more than its disadvangtes and at the end of discussion fast food should not be banned as a respect for the human rights as the freedom of choice . Giving people the chance to take their own choices and the decision to select their own style and their own life by eating whatever they want whether it is unhealthy or not.

Funding in Issaquah School District

The responsibility for managing the finances of Issaquah School District lies with the superintendent and the School Board, although it is regulated by state law and is under instructions from the Superintendent of Public Instruction. There are guidelines for budgeting, accounting and financial reporting, which all district schools must follow. School districts plan and formulate a budget before the start of the school year. The budget is formed in accordance to the stipulations of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The finance department handles money related functions like budgeting, accounting, payroll and benefits, purchasing, accounts payable and receivable, inventory control and asset management. The school district also includes several individual businesses like transport business, food service business, and a child care business. All these are operated on the lines of business model, to ensure accountability and proper use of public funds. In July 2004, a Policy Governance system was introduced by the school board, requiring routine reports on the status and developments occurring in every aspect of district operation. The financial monitoring reports are reviewed several times a year, by the school board. The setting of the school budget requires about a year’s time, and its working is always done for the subsequent year. It requires a four-month time for the completing of the preliminary works like receiving directions for budget setting from Superintendent, legislature, and administrators beginning to work on the budget process. Another four-month period is also required for the drafting of the budget and finalizing the budget, respectively. Apart from gifts and grants received, Issaquah gets less in funding. There are three sources of funding for school districts; namely the federal, state and local taxes. Issaquah gets less funding from all three sources, compared to any other districts. The Issaquah school district ranks 272nd in the revenue per pupil, among the districts in the state. It must be noted here that there are only 296 districts in the state in 2006-07. However many people consider Issaquah as a rich district, unaware of the realities and effects of the lesser funding. School funding is an important agenda debated in Washington’s State legislative and budget panning sessions. In 2006-07, Issaquah received only about $395,000 in federal Title I funding which is aimed at remedial reading programs for the disadvantaged students. This should be compared with other King County districts which get even millions in this fund. The fact that a significant population of Issaquah is considerably affluent, is attributed as the cause for the low funding. In the 1970s, when education was equalized, some districts like Everett and Northshore paid higher salaries to their teachers. Today the state pays about $2000 more per year to an Everett teacher, when compared to an Issaquah teacher. In terms of local funding too, Issaquah treads behind several other districts due to gap in levy authority. Issaquah would collect $6. 4 million more each year if it had the levy authority similar to that of Bellevue, or collected $9. 2 million more per year if it had the levy authority of Mercer Island. In Issaquah, the under-funding of special education by the state is estimated to be around $2. 5 million per year, which is adjusted by local levy dollars. As the local levy dollars cannot be used for supporting other classroom programs, all the students are affected. It is estimated that the under-funding of special education by the Washington State is nearly $200 million per year. On September 30, 2004, about twelve school districts joined together and filed a case against the state for failing to provide the necessary funds for the special education programs. The courts have ruled that Washington State is obliged to fully fund the basic and special education in the district schools.

Engineering Economics

Eng ineeri ng Economy Third Edition Leland T. Blank, P. E. Department of Industrial Engineering Assistant Dean of Engineering Texas A & M University Anthony J. Tarquin, P. E. Department of Civil Engineering Assistant Dean of Engineering The University of Texas at EI Paso McGraw-Hill Book Company New York S1. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Colorado Springs Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Oklahoma City Panama Paris San Juan Silo Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto 4 Level One 1. Define and recognize in a problem statement the economy symbols P, F, A, n, and i. 1. 6 Define cash flow, state what is meant by end-of-period convention, and construct a cash-flow diagram, given a statement describing the amount and times of the cash flows. Study Guide 1. 1 Basic Terminology Before we begin to develop the terminology and fundamental concepts upon which engineering economy is based, it would be appropriate to define what is meant by engineering economy . In the simplest terms, engineering economy is a collection of mathematical techniques which simplify economic comparisons. With these techniques, a rational, meaningful approach to evaluating the economic aspects of different methods of accomplishing a given objective can be developed. Engineering economy is, therefore, a decision assistance tool by which one method will be chosen as the most economical one. In order for you to be able to apply the techniques, however, it is necessary for you to understand the basic terminology and fundamental concepts that form the foundation for engineering-economy studies. Some of these terms and concepts are described below. An alternative is a stand-alone solution for a give situation. We are faced with alternatives in virtually everything we do, from selecting the method of transportation we use to get to work every day to deciding between buying a house or renting one. Similarly, in engineering practice, there are always seveffl ways of accomplishing a given task, and it is necessary to be able to compare them in a rational manner so that the most economical alternative can be selected. The alternatives in engineering considerations usually involve such items as purchase cost (first cost), the anticipated life of the asset, the yearly costs of maintaining the asset (annual maintenance and operating cost), the anticipated resale value (salvage value), and the interest rate (rate of return). After the facts and all the relevant estimates have been collected, an engineering-economy analysis can be conducted to determine which is best from an economic point of view. However, it should be pointed out that the procedures developed in this book will enable you to make accurate economic decisions only about those alternatives which have been recognized as alternatives; these procedures will not help you identify what the alternatives are. That is, if alternatives ,4, B, C, D, and E have been identified as the only possible methods to solve a Particular problem when method F, which was never recognized as an alternative, is really the most attractive method, the wrong decision is certain to be made because alternative F could never be chosen, no matter what analytical techniques are used. Thus, the importance of alternative identification in the decision-making process cannot be overemphasized, because it is only when this aspect of the process has been thoroughly completed that the analysis techniques presented in this book can be of greatest value. In order to be able to compare different methods for accomplishing a given objective, it is necessary to have an evaluation criterion that can be used as a basis Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 5 for judging the alternatives. That is, the evaluation criterion is that which is used to answer the question â€Å"How will I know which one is best? Whether we are aware of it or not, this question is asked of us many times each day. For example, when we drive to work, we subconsciously think that we are taking the â€Å"best† route. But how did we define best? Was the best route the safest, shortest, fastest, cheapest, most scenic, or what? Obviously, depending upon which criterion is used to identify the best, a dif ferent route might be selected each time! (Many arguments could have been avoided if the decision makers had simply stated the criteria they were using in determining the best). In economic analysis, dollars are generally used as the basis for comparison. Thus, when there are several ways of accomplishing a given objective, the method that has the lowest overall cost is usually selected. However, in most cases the alternatives involve intangible factors, such as the effect of a process change on employee morale, which cannot readily be expressed in terms of dollars. When the alternatives available have approximately the same equivalent cost, the nonquantifiable, or intangible, factors may be used as the basis for selecting the best alternative, For items of an alternative which can be quantified in terms of dollars, it is important to recognize the concept of the time value of money. It is often said that money makes money. The statement is indeed true, for if we elect to invest money today (for example, in a bank or savings and loan association), by tomorrow we will have accumulated more money than we had originally invested. This change in the amount of money over a given time period is called the time value of money; it is the most important concept in engineering economy. You should also realize that if a person or company finds it necessary to borrow money today, by tomorrow more money than the original loan will be owed. This fact is also explained by the time value of money. The manifestation of the time value of money is termed interest, which is a measure of the increase between the original sum borrowed or invested and the final amount owed or accrued. Thus, if you invested money at some time in the past, the interest would be Interest = total amount accumulated – original investment (1. 1) On the other hand, if you borrowed would be Interest money at some time in the past, the interest (1. 2) = present amount owed – original loan In either case, there is an increase in the amount of money that was originally invested or borrowed, and the increase over the original amount is the interest. The original investment or loan is referred to as principal. Probs. 1. 1 to 1. 4 1. 2 Interest Calculations When interest is expressed as a percentage of the original amount per unit time, the result is an interest rate. This rate is calculated as follows: . Percent interest rate = interest accrued per unit time 00% .. I x 1 0 origma amount (1. 3) 6 Level One By far the most common time period used for expressing interest rates is 1 year. However, since interest rates are often expressed over periods of time shorter than 1 year (i. e. 1% per month), the time unit used in expressing an interest rate must also be identified and is termed an interest period. The following two examples illustrate the computation of interest rate. Example 1. 1 The Get-Rich-Quick (GRQ) Company invested $100,000 on May 1 and withdrew a total of $106,000 exactly one year later. Compute (a) the interest gained from the original investment and (b) the interest rate from the investment. Solution (a) Using Eq. ( 1. 1), Interest = 106,000 – 100,000 = $6000 (b) Equation (1. 3) is used to obtain Percent interest rate = 6000 per year 100,000 x 100% = 6% per year Comment For borrowed money, computations are similar to those shown above except that interest is computed by Eq. (1. 2). For example, if GRQ borrowed $100,000 now and repaid $110,000 in 1 year, using Eq. (1. 2) we find that interest is $10,000, and the interest rate from Eq. (1. 3) is 10% per year. Example 1. 2 Joe Bilder plans to borrow $20,000 for 1 year at 15% interest. Compute (a) the interest and (b) the total amount due after 1 year. Solution (a) Equation (1. 3) may be solved for the interest accrued to obtain Interest = 20,000(0. 15) = $3000 (b) Total amount due is the sum of principal and interest or Total due Comment = 0,000 + 3000 = $23,000 Note that in part (b) above, the total amount due may also be computed as Total due = principal(l + interest rate) = 20,000(1. 15) = $23,000 In each example the interest period was 1 year and the interest was calculated at the end of one period. When more than one yearly interest period is involved (for example, if we had wanted to know the amount of interest Joe Bilder would owe on Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 7 the above loan after 3 years), it becomes necessary to determine whether the interest . payable on a simple or compound basis. The concepts of simple and compound interest are discussed in Sec. . 4. Additional Examples 1. 12 and 1. 13 Probs. 1. 5 to 1. 7 1. 3 Equivalence The time value of money and interest rate utilized together generate the concept of equivalence, which means that different sums of money at different times can be equal in economic value. For example, if the interest rate is 12% per year, $100 today (i. e. , at present) would be equivalent to $112 one year from today, since mount accrued = 100 =$112 Thus, if someone offered you a gift of $100 today or $112 one year from today, it would make no difference which offer you accepted, since in either case you would have $112 one year from today. The two sums of money are therefore equivalent to each other when the interest rate is 12% per year. At either a higher or a lower interest rate, however, $100 today is not equivalent to $112 one year from today. In addition to considering future equivalence, one can apply the same concepts for determining equivalence in previous years. Thus, $100 now would be equivalent to 100/1. 12 = $89. 29 one year ago if the interest rate is 12% per year. From these examples, it should be clear that $89. 29 last year, $100 now, and 112 one year from now are equivalent when the interest rate is 12% per year. The fact that these sums are equivalent can be established by computing the interest rate as follows: 112 100 = 1. 12, or 12% per year and 8~~~9 = 1. 12, or 12% per year The concept of equivalence can be further illustrated by considering different loan-repayment schemes. Each scheme represents repayment of a $5000 loan in 5 years at 15%-per-year interest. Table 1. 1 presents the details for the four repayment methods described below. (The methods for determining the amount of the payments are presented in Chaps. 2 and 3. ) †¢ Plan 1 a interest or principal is recovered until the fifth year. Interest accumulates each year on the total of principal and all accumulated interest. †¢ Plan 2 The accrued interest is paid each year and the principal is recovered at the end of 5 years. †¢ Plan 3 The accrued interest and 20% of the principal, that is, $1000, is paid each year. Since the remaining loan balance decreases each year, the accrued interest decreases each year. + 100(0. 12) = 100(1 + 0. 12) = 100(1. 12) 8 Level One Table 1. 1 Different repayment schedules of $5,000 at 15% for 5 years (1) End of year (2) = 0. 15(5) Interest for year (3) = (2) + (5) Total owed at end of year (4) Payment per plan (3) – (4) Balance after payment (5) Plan 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Plan 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 Plan 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 Plan 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 $ 750. 00 862. 50 991. 88 1,140. 66 1,311. 76 5,750. 00 6,612. 50 7,604. 38 8,745. 04 10,056. 80 0 0 0 0 10,056. 80 $10,056. 80 $ $5,000. 00 5,750. 00 6,612. 50 7,604. 38 8,745. 04 0 $750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 $5,750. 00 5,750. 00 5,750. 00 5,750. 00 5,750. 00 $ 750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 5,750. 00 $8,750. 00 $5,000. 00 5,000. 00 5,000. 00 5,000. 00 5,000. 00 0 $750. 00 600. 00 450. 00 300. 00 150. 00 $5,750. 00 4,600. 00 3,450. 00 2,300. 00 1,150. 00 $1,750. 00 1,600. 00 1,450. 0 1,300. 00 1,150. 00 $7,250. 00 5,000. 00 4,000. 00 3,000. 00 2,000. 00 1,000. 00 0 $750. 00 638. 76 510. 84 363. 73 194. 57 $5,750. 00 4,897. 18 3,916. 44 2,788. 59 1,491. 58 $1,491. 58 1,491. 58 1,491. 58 1,491. 58 1,491. 58 $7,457. 90 $5,000. 00 4,258. 42 3,405. 60 2,424. 86 1,297. 01 0 †¢ Plan 4 Equal payments are made each year with a portion going toward princi- pal recovery and the remainder covering the accrued interest. Since the loan balance decreases at a rate which is slower than in plan 3 because of the equal end-of-year payments, the interest decreases, but at a rate slower than in plan 3. te that the total amount repaid in each case would be different, even though each repayment scheme would require exactly 5 years to repay the loan. The difference in the total amounts repaid can of course be explained by the time value of money, since the amount of the payments is different for each plan. With respect to equivalence, the table shows that when the interest rate is 15% per year, $5000 at time 0 is equivalent to $10,056. 80 at the end of year 5 (plan 1), or $750 per year for 4 years and $5750 at the end of year 5 (plan 2), or the decreasing amounts shown in years 1 through 5 (plan 3), or $1,491. 8 per year for 5 years (plan 4). Using the formulas developed in Chaps. 2 and 3, we could easily show that if the payments in Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 9 each plan (column 4) were reinvested at 15% per year when received, the total amount of money available at the end of year 5 would be $10,056. 80 from each repayment plan. Additional Examples 1. 14 and 1. 15 Probs. 1. 8 and 1. 9 1. 4 Simple and Compound Interest The concepts of interest and interest rate were introduced in Sees. 1. 1 and 1. 2 and ed in Sec. 1. 3 to calculate for one interest period past and future sums of money equivalent to a present sum (principal). When more than one interest period is involved, the terms simple and compound interest must be considered. Simple interest is calculated using the principal only, ignoring any interest that was accrued in preceding interest periods. The total interest can be computed using the relation Interest = (principal)(number of periods)(interest rate) = Pni (1. 4) Example 1. 3 If you borrow $1000 for 3 years at 14%-per-year simple interest, how much money will you owe at the end of 3 years? Solution The interest for each of the 3 years is = Interest per year 1000(0. 14) = $140 Total interest for 3 years from Eq. (1. 4) is Total interest = 1000(3)(0. 4)= $420 Finally, the amount due after 3 years is 1000 + 420 Comment = $1420 The $140 interest accrued in the first year and the $140 accrued in the second year did not earn interest. The interest due was calculated on the principal only. The results of this loan are tabulated in Table 1. 2. The end-of-year figure of zero represents th~ present, th at is, when the money is borrowed. Note that no payment is made by the borrower until the end of year 3. Thus, the amount owed each year increases uniformly by $140, since interest is figured only on the principal of $1000. Table 1. 2 Simple-interest (1) (2) computation (3) (4) (2) + (3) Amount owed (5) End of year 0 1 2 Amount borrowed $1,000 Interest Amount paid 3 $140 140 140 $1,140 1,280 1,420 $ 0 0 1,420 10 Level One In calculations of compound interest, the interest for an interest period is calculated on the principal plus the total amount of interest accumulated in previous periods. Thus, compound interest means â€Å"interest on top of interest† (i. e. , it reflects the effect of the time value of money on the interest too). Example 1. 4 If you borrow $1000 at 14%-per-year compound interest, instead of simple interest as in the preceding example, compute the total amount due after a 3-year period. Solution The interest and total amount due for each year is computed as follows: Interest, year 1 = 1000(0. 14) = $140 Total amount due after year 1 = 1000 + 140 = $1140 Interest, year 2 = 1140(0. 14) = $159. 60 Total amount due after year 2 = 1140 + 159. 60 = $1299. 60 Interest, year 3 = 1299. 60(0. 14)= $181. 94 Total amount due after year 3 = 1299. 60 + 181. 94 = $1481. 54 Comment The details are shown in Table 1. 3. The repayment scheme is the same as that for the simple-interest example; that is, no amount is repaid until the principal plus all interest is due at the end of year 3. The time value of money is especially recognized in compound interest. Thus, with compound interest, the original $1000 would accumulate an extra $1481. 54 – $1420 = $61. 54 compared with simple interest in the 3-year period. If $61. 54 does not seem like a significant difference, remember that the beginning amount here was only $1000. Make these same calculations for an initial amount of $10 million, and then look at the size of the difference! The power of compounding can further be illustrated through another interesting exercise called â€Å"Pay Now, Play Later†. It can be shown (by using the equations that will be developed in Chap. ) that at an interest rate of 12% per year, approximately $1,000,000 will be accumulated at the end of a 40-year time period by either of the Table 1. 3 Compound-interest (1) (2) computation (3) (4) = (2) + (3) (5) End of year 0 1 2 3 Amount borrowed $1,000 Interest Amount owed $1,140. 00 1,299. 60 1,481. 54 Amount paid $140. 00 159. 60 181. 94 $ 0 0 1,481. 54 Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 11 – llowing investment schemes: †¢ Plan 1 Invest $2610 each year for the first 6 years and then nothing for the next 34 years, or †¢ Plan 2 Invest nothing for the first 6 years, and then $2600 each year for the next 34 years!! ‘ote that the total investment in plan 1 is $15,660 while the total required in plan _ to accumulate the same amount of money is nearly six times greater at $88,400. Both the power of compounding and the wisdom of planning for your retirement at he earliest possible time should be quite evident from this example. An interesting observation pertaining to compound-interest calculations in-olves the estimation of the length of time required for a single initial investment to double in value. The so-called rule of 72 can be used to estimate this time. The rule i based on the fact that the time required for an initial lump-sum investment to double in value when interest is compounded is approximately equal to 72 divided by the interest rate that applies. For example, at an interest rate of 5% per year, it would take approximately 14. 4 years (i. e. , 72/5 = 14. 4) for an initial sum of money to double in value. (The actual time required is 14. 3 years, as will be shown in Chap. 2. ) In Table 1. 4, the times estimated from the rule of 72 are compared to the actual times required for doubling at various interest rates and, as you can see, very good estimates are obtained. Conversely, the interest rate that would be required in order for money to double in a specified period of time could be estimated by dividing 72 by the specified time period. Thus, in order for money to double in a time period of 12 years, an interest rate of approximately 6% per year would be required (i. e. , 72/12 = 6). It should be obvious that for simple-interest situations, the â€Å"rule of 100† would apply, except that the answers obtained will always be exact. In Chap. 2, formulas are developed which simplify compound-interest calculations. The same concepts are involved when the interest period is less than a year. A discussion of this case is deferred until Chap. 3, however. Since real-world calculations almost always involve compound interest, the interest rates specified herein refer to compound interest rates unless specified otherwise. Additional Example 1. 16 Probs. 1. 10 to 1. 26 Table 1. 4 Doubling time estimated actual time from rule of 72 versus Doubling lime, no. of periods Interest rate, % per period 1 Estimated from rule 72 Actual 70 35. 3 14. 3 7. 5 2 5 10 20 40 36 14. 4 7. 2 3. 6 1. 8 3. 9 2. 0 12 Level One 1. 5 Symbols and Their Meaning The mathematical symbols: relations sed in engmeenng economy employ the following P = value or sum of money at a time denoted as the present; dollars, pesos, etc. F A n i = value or sum of money at some future time; dollars, pesos, etc. = a series of consecutive, equal, end-of-period month, dollars per year, etc. amounts of money; dollars per = number of interest periods; months, years, etc. = interest rate per interest period; percent per month, percent per year, etc. The symbols P and F represent single-time occurrence values: A occurs at each interest period for a specified number of periods with the same value. It should be understood that a present sum P represents a single sum of money at some time prior to a future sum or uniform series amount and therefore does not necessarily have to be located at time t = O. Example 1. 11 shows a P value at a time other than t = O. The units of the symbols aid in clarifying their meaning. The present sum P and future sum F are expressed in dollars; A is referred to in dollars per interest period. It is important to note here that in order for a series to be represented by the symbol A, it must be uniform (i. e. the dollar value must be the same for each period) and the uniform dollar amounts must extend through consecutive interest periods. Both conditions must exist before the dollar value can be represented by A. Since n is commonly expressed in years or months, A is usually expressed in units of dollars per year or dollars per month, respectively. The compound-interest rate i is expressed in percent per interest period, for example, 5% per year. Ex cept where noted otherwise, this rate applies throughout the entire n years or n interest periods. The i value is often the minimum attractive rate of return (MARR). All engineering-economy problems must involve at least four of the symbols listed above, with at least three of the values known. The following four examples illustrate the use of the symbols. Example 1. 5. If you borrow $2000 now and must repay the loan plus interest at a rate of 12% per year in 5 years, what is the total amount you must pay? List the values of P, F, n, and i. Solution In this situation P and F, but not A, are involved, since all transactions are single payments. The values are as follows: P = $2000 Example 1. 6 i = 12% per year n = 5 years If you borrow $2000 now at 17% per year for 5 years and must repay the loan in equal yearly payments, what will you be required to pay? Determine the value of the symbols involved. Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 13 ~- ution = S2000 = ? per year for 5 years = 17% per year = 5 years – ere is no F value involved. – 1 In both examples, the P value of $2000 is a receipt and F or A is a disbursement. equally correct to use these symbols in reverse roles, as in the examples below. Example 1. 7 T you deposit $500 into an account on May 1, 1988, which pays interest at 17% per year, hat annual amount can you withdraw for the following 10 years? List the symbol values. Solution p = $500 A =? per year i = 17% per year n= 10 years Comment The value for the $500 disbursement P and receipt A are given the same symbol names as before, but they are considered in a different context. Thus, a P value may be a receipt (Examples 1. 5 and 1. 6) or a disbursement (this example). Example 1. 8 If you deposit $100 into an account each year for 7 years at an interest rate of 16% per year, what single amount will you be able to withdraw after 7 years? Define the symbols and their roles. Solution In this example, the equal annual deposits are in a series A and the withdrawal is a future sum, or F value. There is no P value here. A = $100 per year for 7 years F =? i = 16% per year n = 7 years Additional Example 1. 17 Probs. 1. 27 to 1. 29 14 Level One 1. 6 Cash-Flow Diagrams Every person or company has cash receipts (income) and cash disbursements (costs) which occur over a particular time span. These receipts and disbursements in a given time interval are referred to as cash flow, with positive cash flows usually representing receipts and negative cash flows representing disbursements. At any point in time, the net cash flow would be represented as Net cash flow = receipts – disbursements (1. 5) Since cash flow normally takes place at frequent and varying time intervals within an interest period, a simplifying assumption is made that all cash flow occurs at the end of the interest period. This is known as the end-of-period convention. Thus, when several receipts and disbursements occur within a given interest period, the net cash flow is assumed to occur at the end of the interest period. However, it should be understood that although the dollar amounts of F or A are always considered to occur at the end of the interest period, this does not mean that the end of the period is December 31. In the situation of Example 1. 7, since investment took place on May 1, 1988, the withdrawals will take place on May 1, 1989 and each succeeding May 1 for 10 years (the last withdrawal will be on May 1, 1998, not 1999). Thus, end of the period means one time period from the date of the transaction (whether it be receipt or disbursement). In the next chapter you will learn how to determine the equivalent relations between P, F, and A values at different times. A cash-flow diagram is simply a graphical representation of cash flows drawn on a time scale. The diagram should represent the statement of the problem and should include what is given and what is to be found. That is, after the cash-flow diagram has been drawn, an outside observer should be able to work the problem by looking at only the diagram. Time is considered to be the present and time 1 is the end of time period 1. (We will assume that the periods are in years until Chap. . ) The time scale of Fig. 1. 1 is set up for 5 years. Since it is assumed that cash flows occur only at the end of the year, we will be concerned only with the times marked 0, 1, 2, †¦ , 5. The direction of the arrows on the cash-flow diagram is important to problem solution. Therefore, in this text, a vertical arrow pointing up will indicate a positive cash flow. Conversely, an a rrow pointing down will indicate a negative cash flow. The cash-flow diagram in Fig. 1. 2 illustrates a receipt (income) at the end of year 1 and a disbursement at the end of year 2. It is important that you thoroughly understand the meaning and construction of the cash-flow diagram, since it is a valuable tool in problem solution. The three examples below illustrate the construction of cash-flow diagrams.  ° Figure 1. 1 A typical cash-flow time scale. Year 1 Year 5 r=;:;; r+;:;. I 1 2 Time o I I 3 4 I 5 Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 15 + Figure 1. 2 Example of positive and negative cash flows. 2 3 Time Example 1. 9 Consider the situation presented in Example 1. 5, where P = $2000 is borrowed and F is to be found after 5 years. Construct the cash-flow diagram for this case, assuming an interest rate of 12% per year. Solution Figure 1. 3 presents the cash-flow diagram. Comment While it is not necessary to use an exact scale on the cash-flow axes, you will probably avoid errors later on if you make a neat diagram. Note also that the present sum P is a receipt at year 0 and the future sum F is a disbursement at the end of year 5. Example 1. 10 If you start now and make five deposits of $1000 per year (A) in a 17%-per-year account, how much money will be accumulated (and can be withdrawn) immediately after you have made the last deposit? Construct the cash-flow diagram. Solution The cash flows are shown in Fig. 1. 4. Since you have decided to start now, the first deposit is at year 0 and the [lith Comment deposit and withdrawal occur at the end of year 4. Note that in this example, the amount accumulated after the fifth deposit is to be computed; thus, the future amount is represented by a question mark (i. e. , F = ? ) Figure 1. 3. Cash-flow diagram for Example 1. 9. + P = $2. 000 i = 12% o 2 3 4 5 Year F= ? 16 Figure 1. 4 Cashflow diagram for Example 1. 10. Level One F= ? i = 17†³10 2 0 3 4 Year A=$1. 000 Example 1. 11 Assume that you want to deposit an amount P into an account 2 years from now in order to be able to withdraw $400 per year for 5 years starting 3 years from now. Assume that the interest rate is 151% per year. Construct the cash-flow diagram. Figure 1. 5 presents the cash flows, where P is to be found. Note that the diagram shows what was given and what is to be found and that a P value is not necessarily located at time t = O. Solution Additional Examples 1. 18 to 1. 20 Probs. 1. 30 to 1. 46 Additional Examples Example 1. 12 Calculate the interest and total amount accrued after 1 year if $2000 is invested at an interest rate of 15% per year. Solution Interest earned = 2000(0. 15) = $300 Total amount accrued = 2000 + 2000(0. 15) = 2000(1 + 0. 15) = $2300 Figure 1. 5 Cashflow diagram for Example 1. 11. A = $400 o 2 3 4 5 6 7 Year p=? Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 17 Example 1. 13 a) Calculate the amount of money that must have been deposited 1 year ago for you to have $lOQO now at an interest rate of 5% per year. b) Calculate the interest that was earned in the same time period. Solution a) Total amount accrued = original deposit + (original deposit)(interest rate). If X = original deposit, then 1000 = X + X(0. 5) = X(l + 0. 05) 1000 = 1. 05X 1000 X=-=952. 38 1. 05 Original deposit = $952. 38 (b) By using Eq. (1. 1), we have Interest = 1000 – 952. 38 = $47. 62 Example 1. 14 Calculate the amount of money that must have been deposited 1 year ago for the investment to earn $100 in interest in 1 year, if the interest rate is 6% Per year. Solution Let a = a = = total amount accrued and b = original deposit. Interest Since a Interest Interest b b + b (interest rate), interest can be expressed as + b (interest rate) b =b = b (interest rate) $100 = b(0. 06) b = 100 = $1666. 67 0. 06 Example 1. 5 Make the calculations necessary to show which of the statements below are true and which are false, if the interest rate is 5% per year: (a) $98 now is equivalent to $105. 60 one year from now. (b) $200 one year past is equivalent to $205 now. (c) $3000 now is equivalent to $3150 one year from now. (d) $3000 now is equivalent to $2887. 14 one year ago. (e) Interest accumulated in 1 year on an investment of $2000 is $100. Solution (a) Total amount accrued = 98(1. 05) = $102. 90 =P $105. 60; therefore false. Another way to solve this is as follows: Required investment = 105. 60/1. 05 = $100. 57 =P $9? Therefore false. b) Required investment = 205. 00/1. 05 = $195. 24 =p $200; therefore false. 18 Level One (e) Total amount accrued = 3000(1. 05) = $3150; therefore true. (d) Total amount accrued = 2887. 14(1. 05) = $3031. 50 â€Å"# $3000; therefore false. (e) Interest = 2000(0. 05) = $100; therefore true. Example 1. 16 Calculate the total amount due after 2 years if $2500 is borrowed now and the compoundinterest rate is 8% per year. Solution The results are presented in the table to obtain a total amount due of $2916. (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) + (3) (5) End of year Amount borrowed $2,500 Interest Amount owed Amount paid o 1 2 Example 1. 17 $200 216 2,700 2,916 $0 2,916 Assume that 6% per year, starting next withdrawing Solution P = you plan to make a lump-sum deposit of $5000 now into an account that pays and you plan to withdraw an equal end-of-year amount of $1000 for 5 years year. At the end of the sixth year, you plan to close your account by the remaining money. Define the engineering-economy symbols involved. $5000 A = $1000 per year for 5 years F = ? at end of year 6 i = 6% per year n = 5 years for A Figure 1. 6 Cashflow diagram for Example 1. 18. $650 $625 $600 $575 $ 550 $525 $500 $625 t -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 t o Year P = $2,500 Terminology and Cash-Flow Diagrams 19 Example 1. 1B The Hot-Air Company invested $2500 in a new air compressor 7 years ago. Annual income â€Å"-om the compressor was $750. During the first year, $100 was spent on maintenance, _ cost that increased each year by $25. The company plans to sell the compressor for salvage at the end of next year for $150. Construct the cash-flow diagram for the piece f equipment. The income and cost for years – 7 through 1 (next year) are tabulated low with net cash flow computed using Eq. (1. 5). The cash flows are diagrammed . Fig. 1. 6. Solution End of year Net cash flow Income Cost -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 Example 0 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 + 150 $2,500 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 $-2,500 650 625 600 575 550 525 500 625 1. 19 Suppose that you want to make a deposit into your account now such that you can withdraw an equal annual amount of Ai = $200 per year for the first 5 years starting 1 year after your deposit and a different annual amount of A2 = $300 p er year for the following 3 years. How would the cash-flow diagram appear if i is 14! % per year? Solution The cash flows would appear as shown in Fig. 1. 7. Comment The first withdrawal (positive cash flow) occurs at the end of year 1, exactly one year after P is deposited. Figure 1. 7 Cash-flow diagram for two different A values, Example 1. 19. A2 = $300 A, = $200 0 1 2 3 4 i = 14+% 5 6 7 8 Year p=? 20 Level One p=? j = 12% per year Figure 1. 8 Cash-flow diagram for Example 1. 20. F2 1996 1995 A = $50 A = $150 = $50 F, = $900 Example 1. 20 If you buy a new television set in 1996 for $900,. maintain it for 3 years at a cost of $50 per year, and then sell it for $200, diagram your cash flows and label each arrow as P, F, or A with its respective dollar value so that you can find the single amount in 1995 that would be equivalent to all of the cash flows shown. Assume an interest rate of 12% per year. Solution Comment Figure 1. 8 presents the cash-flow diagram. The two $50 negative cash flows form a series of two equal end-of-year values. As long as the dollar values are equal and in two or more consecutive periods, they can be represented by A, regardless of where they begin or end. However, the $150 positive cash flow in 1999 is a single-occurrence value in the future and is therefore labeled an F value. It is possible, however, to view all of the individual cash flows as F values. The diagram could be drawn as shown in Fig. . 9. In general, however, if two or more equal end-of-period amounts occur consecutively, by the definition in Sec. 105 they should be labeled A values because, as is described in Chap. 2, the use of A values when possible simplifies calculations considerably. Thus, the interpretation pictured by the diagram of Fig. 1. 9 is discouraged and will not generally be used further in this text. p=? j = 12% per year F. = $150 1. 9 A cash flow for Example 1. 20 considering all values as future sums. Figure 1996 1995 1997 1998 1999 F2 = $50 F3 = $50 F, = $900